Heat energy from Q = mcΔT (solve for heat, mass, final temperature or specific heat), latent heat Q = mL for melting or boiling, and Carnot efficiency.
更新于 已验证的示例：10
Adding 334.88 kJ to 1 kg of material with c = 4,186 J/(kg·K) changes its temperature by 80 K, from 20 °C to 100 °C.
A change of 1 °C equals a change of 1 K.
Warming or cooling a material takes heat Q = mcΔT, where m is the mass, c the specific heat capacity and ΔT the temperature change; the calculator solves for any one of heat, mass, final temperature or specific heat. Melting or boiling takes Q = mL at constant temperature, where L is the latent heat. The Carnot mode gives the upper limit on any heat engine's efficiency, 1 − Tc/Th with both temperatures in kelvin.
The default, 1 kg of water heated from 20 °C to 100 °C, needs 334,880 J (0.093 kWh), what a 2 kW kettle delivers in 2 minutes 47 seconds with no losses. Boiling that water away takes a further 2,256 kJ, almost seven times as much.
Specific heats are room-temperature values from OpenStax University Physics (Table 1.3). In reality c varies with temperature, and the calculation assumes no melting or boiling between the two temperatures.
核验来源：Python 3.8 fractions: 1 × 4186 × 80 = 334880 J (OpenStax c_water = 4186)
核验来源：Python 3.8: 1 × 4186 × (20 − 80)
核验来源：Python 3.8 fractions: ΔT = 9000/(0.5 × 900) = 20 K
核验来源：Python 3.8: 3870/(1 × 10) = 387 J/(kg·K), copper in OpenStax Table 1.3
4,186 J per kilogram per degree Celsius, water's specific heat capacity. Heating 1 litre (1 kg) from 20 °C to 100 °C takes 1 × 4,186 × 80 = 334,880 J, or 0.093 kWh. In US units that is about 1 BTU per pound per °F, which is how the BTU was originally defined.
The heat needed to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 K (the same as 1 °C), in J/(kg·K). Water's is 4,186, among the highest of common substances, while copper's is 387 and lead's 128. The same 10 kJ warms 1 kg of water by 2.4 °C but 1 kg of copper by 25.8 °C, which is why water is used for cooling and heat storage.
The energy absorbed or released during a phase change at constant temperature, Q = mL. For water the latent heat of fusion is 334 kJ/kg at 0 °C and of vaporisation 2,256 kJ/kg at 100 °C (OpenStax Table 1.4). Melting 2 kg of ice takes 668 kJ, enough to heat the same 2 kg of water by about 80 °C.
η = 1 − Tc/Th, the largest fraction of heat that any engine can turn into work between a hot reservoir at Th and a cold one at Tc, both in kelvin. Between 500 K and 300 K it is 40%; between boiling and freezing water, 26.8%. Real engines fall short of it: coal-fired power stations typically convert about 37% of their fuel's heat into electricity.
COP = Th/(Th − Tc) with temperatures in kelvin, the Carnot limit on heat delivered per unit of work. Pumping heat from 0 °C outdoors into a 35 °C heating loop allows at most 308.15/35 ≈ 8.8. At −10 °C outside the limit drops to 6.8, and real machines stay well below it because of compressor and heat-exchanger losses.
准确性取决于输入值和方法的假设。十进制运算使用50位有效数字，但估算、数值方法和源数据的精度可能较低；显示时的舍入并不能消除这些限制。 已按独立来源核验的计算示例：10。 例如，“Heat 1 kg of water from 20 °C to 100 °C”根据Python 3.8 fractions: 1 × 4186 × 80 = 334880 J (OpenStax c_water = 4186)进行核验。
OpenStax University Physics Volume 2, §1.5 Heat transfer, specific heat and calorimetry (Table 1.3); §1.6 Phase changes (Table 1.4); OpenStax University Physics Volume 2, §4.5 The Carnot cycle.
此计算器包含 10 个已解示例，答案来自独立来源。这些示例会在测试套件中运行，你也可以在此运行验证。
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